Christ’s presence at the Eucharist has been seen differently at different points in history. While early Christian communities varied widely and evidence of their practices are few, the Didache, a 1st or 2nd century Catechism, uses trinitarian language around the eucharist and references a mystical union of all believers, paralleling the Christians with grains of wheat scattered on the mountains. They use the prayer from the last supper and while there is mysticism in their discussion of communion, there is no sense that Christ is in any way physically present in the Eucharist. It seems more that the meal remembers Christ and draws people into community through time and space. As the Roman Catholic Church centralized and began to develop orthodoxy, the concept of transubstantiation was elevated to the orthodox position. Transubstantiation meant that the bread and wine were ritually transformed via language and gesture into the literal body and blood of Christ. While this framework dominated for many years, the Protestant Reformation led to a reimagination of Eucharist as symbolic or an act of remembrance. For Reformers, transubstantiation made little sense. For Zwingli, if Jesus did not mean that the bread and wine were blood and body at the last supper were literal (which he decided Jesus could not, since he was physically present, including his body and blood), that it was no more literal in our practice of it today. Reformers countered dominant theology of their time in many ways.
The frequency of communion has also changed over time with different groups partaking in communion to varying degrees of frequency today. Evidence from the Didache, the First Apology of Justin, the Apostolic Tradition, and the Pilgrimage of Egeria all suggest that communion was central to early Christian worship practices. It is probable that early Christians took communion at every worship gathering. As the church grew, an absence of clergy led to infrequent communion, often only annually. In the medieval church, communion was “ocular” for laity and only partaken of physically by the priests. These practices were reversed after Vatican II, which required active participation of the laity. The Roman Catholic Church now practices Eucharist weekly with the entire congregation. In Protestant churches, despite prominent reformers’ objection, communion became less frequent. The minimum requirements of annual communion often became the norm. Especially in frontier and revival environments, there was often a lack of ordained clergy and thus no one to properly consecrate the Eucharist. Because of this, communion was less frequent and communities began to promote elders and other non-ordained clergy to having the ability to consecrate the Eucharist. In today’s Protestant churches, there is variance. Many churches practice communion monthly or quarterly, although some churches partake annually or weekly.
Those individuals deemed acceptable to preside over the Eucharist have similarly changed over time. Evidence from archaeological work suggests that women were once seen fit to preside over the Eucharist. The early church lacked hierarchical organization in its beginnings, so “ordained” clergy would not have existed. The Eucharist was likely a shared act. Early on, as churches grew, elected positions were created to help communities run more smoothly. Presidents and deacons were elected to serve Eucharist. The Roman Catholic Church would decide that the consecration of Eucharist must be performed in precise ways and Gregorian reforms included specific instructions for Eucharist. Protestant churches would likewise require that church leaders preside over the Eucharist. As I mentioned above, in frontier and revival traditions, there was often a lack of ordained clergy. Thus, church elders were elevated to positions allowing them to preside over the Eucharist and in some cases, communities took power into their own hands and performed the rituals themselves. Most contemporary churches require ordained clergy to preside over the Eucharist.
In addition to the physical aspects of communion, communion has been understood through different metaphorical lenses. From evidence of the earliest Christian communities, Eucharist has been seen as part of an act of thanksgiving. In many early communities, the Eucharist was part of a full meal and a celebration and thanksgiving of the abundance provided by God and communal Christian living. Prayers of thanks were part of the language surrounding communion in the Didache, the earliest extant Christian catechism. Prayers of gratitude have been part of meals since before Christianity was distinct from Judaism. In a world where many go hungry and many have abundance, we can be thankful for the physical food of communion as well as the spiritual nourishment that accompanies it. Gratitude for the gifts of God can and should be pervasive in worship.
The Eucharist is also a commemoration of the last supper. Before his execution, Jesus shared a passover meal with his disciples; sharing bread and wine are reportedly offering the metaphor of bread and body. Christians remember Jesus and his death and resurrection through partaking in this meal that Jesus was also supposed to have participated in. In so remembering the death and resurrection, we are reminded of the salvific nature of those acts and partaking in communion can remind us of the salvific acts of Christ and our salvation through and in him. We remember his ministry that ended, in many ways, with that meal. The eating of Eucharist honors the memory of Christ and the type of relationship he fostered with his followers.
Eucharist is also communion. It draws us together in the body of Christ. In partaking of communion, we act as a community sharing a meal and acknowledge the familial nature of that act. We also share a meal with all Christians who have come and gone before us, or who still live in other areas of the world. We are drawn together through time and space in the mysticism of a shared act. We draw ourselves into relationship with God and Jesus Christ, partaking of the meal with them as well. Emphasizing theologies of community helps to offer place in the world as well as in the cosmos and offers ways to view both personal and community relationships. Eucharist is a shared act that we become part of as we partake in it.
Eucharist and the theologies and practices surrounding it have changed and evolved over time. People throughout time in the Christian movement have tried to understand Jesus’ relationship and presence in the meal and have varied in how frequently the Eucharist was shared. Sometimes the frequency of the Eucharist was dependent upon who was able to preside over it and people’s roles in presenting the Eucharist have changed over time. We can understand Eucharist as an act of thanksgiving for the gifts from God and the gift of salvation. Our salvation is remembered in commemorating the last supper and remembering the meal Christ shared with his followers before his execution and resurrection. Finally, Eucharist draws us into a community of believers throughout time and space. We participate in the whole body of Christ and are participants in his work together. The Eucharist and its meanings are multivalent, offering meaning and interpretations to people in different ways throughout history.
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